Berm

These are chemicals that produce blisters on exposed skin. Mustard (H) agent, used during the latter parts of World War I, is colorless and almost odorless in its pure state. The name comes from early production methods that yielded an impure, mustardy or rotten-onion smelling product. Distilled mustard (HD) is used as a delayed action casualty agent, the delay of symptom onset depending upon the munitions used and the weather. Typically the delay is over four hours. Heavily splashed liquid mustard persists one to two days or more in concentrations that produce casualties of military significance under average weather conditions and a week to months under very cold conditions.

Mustard first irritates and finally poisons cells in all tissue surfaces contacted. Initial symptoms include inflamed eyes, nose, throat, trachea, bronchi and lung tissue; and reddened skin. Blistering or ulceration is also likely to occur. Other effects may include vomiting and fever that begin around the same time as the skin starts to redden.

Eyes are very sensitive to mustard in small concentrations (although symptoms are delayed); skin damage requires much larger ones. HD causes casualties at smaller concentrations in hot, humid weather, because the body is moist with perspiration. Wet skin absorbs more mustard than dry skin. HD has a very low detoxification rate. Repeated exposures, therefore, are cumulative in the body.

People can defend themselves from mustard by wearing protective masks and impermeable protective clothing, which protect against large droplets, vapor, splashes and smears.

A hand-held, soldier-operated post-attack device to monitor chemical agent contamination. It detects chemical agents’ vapors by sensing molecular ions of specific mobilities (time required to pass through a series of baffles). The monitor could detect and discriminate between nerve and mustard agents’ vapors. Employed in both monitoring and surveying missions, it was designed primarily to sort contaminated from uncontaminated vehicles, equipment, and people. The Improved Chemical Agent Monitor (ICAM) replaces it.

False Responses and Interferents: The CAM may give false readings when used in enclosed spaces or sampling near strong vapor sources (for example in dense smoke). Some vapors known to give false readings are: aromatic vapors (perfumes, food flavorings, some aftershaves, peppermints, cough lozenges, and menthol cigarettes—if vapors are exhaled directly into the nozzle), cleaning compounds (disinfectants, methyl salicylate, menthol, etc.), smokes and fumes (exhaust from some rocket motors, fumes from some munitions) and some wood preservative treatments (polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs) in an enclosed space. The operator should experiment in the environment to determine what common items will cause the CAM to respond.

For this narrative, we have used the term alarm for indications of possible chemical warfare agent (CWA) presence presented by detection devices that can monitor continuously and give operators an automatic visual or auditory signal (for example, the Fox, M8A1 system, and CAM but not the M256 kit).

For this narrative, we have used the term alert to describe warnings passed within or among units, which usually advised or resulted in increased chemical warfare protective posture.

For this narrative, we have used the term incident to identify events we investigated for possible presence of CWA.

Before Operation Desert Storm started, the German government gave the United States 60 Fox vehicles, modified for US forces. The US military designated the modified German vehicle the XM93 Fox Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) Reconnaissance Vehicle, but it was called simply the Fox. The Fox was designed primarily to detect, identify, and mark areas of persistent liquid CWA ground contamination. On-board CWA detection capabilities included the MM-1 mobile mass spectrometer (the primary detection device), the M43A1 chemical agent detector (an integral component of the M8A1 alarm system), and the M256A1 chemical agent detector kit. See our separate glossary entry on the MM-1. The Fox was also equipped with two radiation detectors. The Fox could not detect biological warfare agents, but it could protect the crew from biological hazards, allowing them to mark potential hazard areas and safely take samples for laboratory analysis.

A jump command post is a sub-element of a command post that moves forward of the main command post to set up and take control of a unit while the unit’s main command post in turn moves forward, reuniting with the jump command post to re-establish a single unit command post.

A portable, expendable item capable of detecting and identifying hazardous concentrations of blister, blood, and nerve agents. In the field, this kit was called simply the M256.

The kit was to be used after a chemical event to determine if it was safe to unmask. The M256A1 kit replaced the M256 kit. The only difference between the two was the M256A1 kit would detect smaller amounts of nerve agent by using an eel enzyme for the nerve test instead of the horse enzyme used in the M256 kit.

False Responses and Interferents: Some smokes, high temperatures, DS2 (a chemical decontamination fluid), and petroleum products could cause false readings. Results could be inaccurate if sampling in smoke from burning debris.

An automatic chemical agent detection and warning system designed to detect the presence of nerve agent vapors or inhalable aerosols. The M8A1 automatically signals the presence of nerve agent in the air with both an audible and visible warning. The dry system M8A1 was fielded to replace the wet M8 chemical detector, eliminating the M229 refill kit and associated logistical burden and cost. The M8A1 operated in a fixed, portable, or vehicle-mounted configuration. In the field, it was called just the M8.

False Responses and Interferents: The M43A1 (detector component) would false alarm in heavy concentrations of rocket propellant, screening, signaling, and cigarette smoke; engine exhaust; burning fuel; insecticides; paint fumes; aftershave; and a nuclear blast.

A portable, expendable single roll of paper that comes with adhesive-backed, coated tape. Ground forces wrap it around the lower left sleeve, upper right sleeve, and on one lower leg of the overgarment and attach it to larger equipment to detect the presence of liquid chemical agent aerosols. The paper is colored a pale green, turns pink, red, reddish-brown, or red-purple when exposed to liquid agent and could detect but not identify the specific agent.

False Responses and Interferents: M9 Paper responded to some common battlefield interferents: petroleum products, brake fluid, DS2, aircraft cleaning compound, decontamination compound, insect repellent, sand-colored camouflage stick, smoke, defoliant, ethylene glycol (antifreeze), and dirt or mud scuffs. M9 tape does not respond to chemical agents when wet and gives false positive indications when abraded against a rough surface. Heat could cause M9 tape to turn red and cause false positive readings.

Problems could exist during night operations and because of interferents. Under red light conditions, (in which soldiers normally use red lenses on their flashlights and other lights at night to decrease their observability and retain night vision), it was not possible to identify a color change; commanders would have to periodically rotate soldiers into a white light area to do so.

Protecting soldiers against all known chemical agents, live biological agents, and toxins, MOPP gear consists of these items:

• Overgarment (two-piece chemical suit);
• Overboots;
• Mask ("gas mask") with hood; and
• Gloves.

A person wearing MOPP gear can not work for very long or very fast. He or she may suffer mental distress from feeling closed in and heat stress and heat exhaustion when working in warm temperatures and at high work rates. The MOPP concept arose from the need to balance individual protection with the threat, temperature, and the mission’s urgency.

Commanders can increase or decrease the extent of protection through five MOPP levels or exercise a mask-only option:

Level 0: Troops must carry their protective mask with them at all times with their remaining MOPP gear readily available (i.e., within the work area, fighting position, living space, etc.).

Level 1: Troops wear their overgarment and must carry the rest of their MOPP gear.

Level 2: Troops wear their overgarment and overboots and carry the mask with hood and gloves.

Level 3: Troops wear their overgarment, overboots, and mask with hood. They carry the gloves.

Level 4: Troops wear all their MOPP gear.

The Fox reconnaissance vehicle’s primary chemical warfare agent detector. During Operation Desert Storm, the MM-1 monitored against a pre-selected target list of up to 22 chemical warfare agents most likely to be present, based on intelligence reports of the suspected chemical warfare agent threat.

To speed the initial search, the sampling probe operates at 180� C (356� F); the MM-1 looks for only four ion peaks of each detected chemical warfare agent and attempts to match the target list of chemicals against these peak’s pattern and ratio. If the MM-1 initially matches these four ion peaks at a pre-determined intensity and relationship, it sounds an alarm. However, this first alarm does not confirm the presence of a chemical warfare agent, since many chemicals have similar ion peaks and many combinations of chemicals may yield ion patterns similar to those in the target list. Consequently, the MM-1 can falsely indicate the presence of dangerous chemical warfare agents.

To more conclusively determine what chemical is present, the operator must lower the sampling probe temperature to 120� C (248� F), reacquire a sample of the suspected substance, and run a spectrum analysis with the MM-1 against all the detection algorithms stored in its chemical library. For more detailed analysis later, the operator can print the sample’s complete ion spectrum on a paper tape.

Although the MM-1 is primarily a liquid CWA detector, it has a limited ability to detect airborne CWA. The Fox was sometimes used for on-the-move vapor monitoring during the war, but it is not optimized for this mission, nor is its detection capability in this operating method as good as other CWA detectors.

Formatted messages designed to rapidly disseminate key information on NBC threats:

NBC 1 Report. The observing unit uses this report to give basic initial and follow-up data about an NBC attack. Battalion and higher elements consolidate reports and decide which to forward.

NBC 2 Report. Based on two or more NBC 1 reports, division and higher elements usually use the NBC 2 report to pass evaluated data to units.

NBC 3 Report. This report disseminates information on predicted downwind hazard areas based on analysis of NBC 1 reports. Each unit evaluates the NBC 3 report, determines which of its subordinate units may be affected, and further disseminates the report as required.

NBC 4 Report. When a unit detects NBC hazards through monitoring, surveying, or reconnaissance, it forwards this information in an NBC 4 report (normally from company level).

NBC 5 Report. Once NBC 4 reports are posted on a situation map, division level normally prepares and disseminates (as map overlays) an NBC 5 report showing contaminated areas.

NBC 6 Report. Battalions prepare this report summarizing information on a chemical or biological attack and submit it to higher headquarters only when requested.

Nerve agents interfere with the proper transmission of nervous impulses. G-agents—Tabun (GA), Sarin (GB), Soman (GD)—or V-agents—VX—are not really gasses; technically, they are all viscous liquids and are spread in the form of liquid drops.

In an unmodified state G-agents are volatile (vaporize easily). G-agents are capable of being thickened with various substances to increase their persistence and penetration of exposed skin. G-agents have a weakly fruity odor but in field concentrations are odorless.

The V-agents do not vaporize easily and are consequently highly persistent. They are therefore primarily contact hazards and exceptionally toxic. Nevertheless, the limited amount of vapor they do produce is enough to be a hazard if inhaled.

Both G-agents and V-agents have the same physiological action on humans. They are potent inhibitors of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is required for many nerves and muscles to function properly in nearly every multicellular animal. People poisoned by nerve agents may display these symptoms:

• Pinpointing of the pupils (an early sign);
• Difficulty in breathing;
• Drooling and excessive sweating;
• Nausea;
• Vomiting, cramps, and loss of bladder and bowel control;
• Twitching, jerking, and staggering;
• Headache, confusion, drowsiness, coma, and convulsion; and
• Death.

In the Gulf War, a prototype (experimental) device—hence the "X"M21. It could detect nerve and blister agent vapor clouds at line-of-sight distances to 5 kilometers (3.1 miles). The RSCAAL detects agent clouds automatically within a 60-degree arc, in seven field-of-view segments. A passive infrared device, it operated by analyzing emission and absorption spectra in the 8 to 12 micron range.

The RSCAAL’s infrared technology required a temperature difference between the background and an agent cloud for detection, so the environment affected the RSCAAL. While temperature differences always exist, the difference is small during certain periods, e.g., dusk, dawn, and periods of significant cloud cover. Atmospheric water vapor levels also could affect the detector’s sensitivity.

False Responses and Interferents: While the RSCAAL was designed to recognize CWA despite some common battlefield interferents, others (e.g., organophosphorous insecticides and large quantities of military Halon—a fire suppressant) could cause false positives, as could a low power supply.^[290]

An Arabic term for a broad, salt-encrusted flat prone to occasional flooding. They occur in three types, coastal, river-lake, and continental. Coastal sabkhas in arid regions become salt flats. Surface evaporation concentrates the seawater. Continental sabkhas (referred to in this narrative) are further inland and occur in low-lying desert basins where evaporation forms surface crusts. The water table is near the surface, usually within one meter.

Originally, this was the NATO nickname for a Soviet-designed and built, liquid-propelled, relatively short-range ballistic missile. During the Gulf War, Iraq employed indigenously modified longer-range versions (the Al Hussein and Al Hijarah) against the Kuwait theater of operations and Israel. Both the missile’s original design and derivative versions could carry high explosive and chemical warheads. Coalition forces often called these missiles collectively "Scuds." See also our information paper titled "Iraq’s Scud Ballistic Missiles."^[293]

After an actual or suspected NBC attack, a procedure designed to determine if general, unit-wide unmasking was safe. If M256 kits are available, selected people unmask for 5 minutes, and then reseal and clear their masks. They are observed for 10 minutes. If no symptoms appear, it is safe to give the all-clear and unmask the unit. This procedure takes about 15 minutes.

If M256 or M256A1 kits are not available, the selected people must perform additional preliminary procedures, and the whole process takes about 35 minutes. They unmask and hold their breath with their eyes open for 15 seconds, remask, are observed for 10 minutes (looking for pinpointing of pupils), unmask and take two or three breaths, remask, are observed for 10 minutes, and then unmask for five minutes, proceeding as with the with-M256 procedure. In each case, the selected unmaskers are further observed for any delayed symptoms.