[1] Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, "Oil Well Fires," Environmental Exposure Report, November 1998 (/oil_well_fires/).
[2] US Environmental Protection Agency, Kuwait Oil Fires: Interagency Interim Report, Washington, D.C., 1991, p. A-2.
[3] Final Report to the Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition & Technology), Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects, June 1994, p. 50.
[4] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000.
[5] US Environmental Protection Agency, 40 CFR Part 50, National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter; Final Rule, Federal Register, Friday July 18, 1997, p. 3.
[6] US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, "Final Report - Kuwait Oil Fire Risk Assessment. No. 39-26-1192," February 1994, p. G-30, 33, 34.
[7] Lead Sheet No. 22581, Interview with a Gulf War Veteran, April 1999.
[8] US Army Medical Intelligence Overview - Eastern Saudi Arabia, Subject: Medical Intelligence Overview - Eastern Saudi Arabia, Performance Degradation Due to Climatic Factors, published on GulfLink: www.gulflink.health.mil/declassdocs/.
[9] Army Central Command. XVIII Corps, Information paper, Subject: "Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)," November 1990, published on GulfLink: www.gulflink.health.mil, p. 3.
[10] Memorandum from Kuwait Environmental Restoration Office, US Army Corps of Engineers, to Staff Members/DAG Team Chiefs, Subject: "Health threat from Oil Well Fires - Information Paper," March 1991, published on GulfLink: www.gulflink.health.mil, p. 9.
[11] US General Accounting Office, Health Effects of the Kuwait Oil Fires, GAO/HRD-92-50, January 1992, p. 4.
[12] Richards A.L., K.C. Hyams, and D.M. Watts et al: "Respiratory Disease among Military Personnel in Saudi Arabia during Operation Desert Shield," American Journal of Public Health, 1993, 83:1326-1329, p. 1328.
[13] Hyams, K.C., A.L. Bourgeois, J. Escamilla , J. Burans, and J.N. Woody, "The Navy Forward Laboratory During Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm," Military Medicine 1993, 158:729-732.
[14] "Military Medicine in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm: the Navy Forward Laboratory, Biological Warfare Detection, and Preventive Medicine," web site: www.gulflink.health.mil/medical/med_navy.htm.
[15] US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, "Interim Report: Kuwait Oil Fire Health Risk Assessment," No. 39-26-L192-91, June 1991, p. ES-3.
[16] US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, "Final Report - Kuwait Oil Fire Risk Assessment," No. 39-26-1192, February 1994, Appendix G: Table G-2-19-28.
[17] These values represent the average of 24-hour samples collected from May to October 1991.
[18] These values represent the 24-hour maximum concentrations observed.
[19] US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, "Final Report - Kuwait Oil Fire Risk Assessment," No. 39-26-1192, February 1994, p. G-30, 33, 34.
[20] US Department of Defense, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, "Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects," June 1994, Published on GulfLINK (http://www.gulflink.health.mil), p. 50.
[21] Spektor, D.M., "A Review of the Scientific Literature as it Pertains to Gulf War Illness, Oil Well Fires", RAND, Volume 6: 1998, p. 25.
[22] The standards were again revised in 1997. The levels for the PM10 standards were retained, however, new standards for PM2.5 (i.e., particles less the 2.5 microns in diameter) were added. It was felt that the PM2.5 size fraction is a better surrogate for those components linked to mortality and morbidity effects. The new standards have been challenged and are in litigation leaving the 1987 PM10 standard in effect. The new PM2.5 standards are in effect for limited purposes; however, since the 1991 air samples were measured only for PM10 and not PM2.5 only the PM10 standards are used for comparison in this report.
[23] USEPA, Code of Federal Regulations, "Federal Register, National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter; Final Rule," Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register 1997, 40 CFR Part 50.
[24] Rabovsky, J., "The Laboratory Studies On Silica Induced Toxicity and Relationship to Carcinogenicity," Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1997, p. 269.
[25] Parkes, W.R., "Inhaled Particles and their Fate in the Lungs," Occupational Lung Disorders (2nd Ed.), Boston, Butterworths, 1983, p. 48-49.
[26] US Navy Bureau of Medicine, "Silicosis and Operational Exposures to Dust and Sand," 1990, http://www.gulflink.health.mil/declassdocs/bumed/19961211/120396_sep96_decls12_0002.html.
[27] US Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter," Vol 3, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, April 1996, p. 13-62.
[28] US Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter," Vol 3, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, April 1996, p. 13-105, 13-119, 13-120, 13-121.
[29] US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter (Draft)," Volume I, October 1999, p. 1-15.
[30] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 21.
[31] US Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter ," Vol. 3, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, April 1996, p. 13-62.
[32] US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter (Draft)," Volume I, October 1999.
[33] Presidential Advisory Committee (PAC) on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses: Final Report. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, December 1996, Published on GulfLINK (http://www.gulflink.health.mil), p. 100.
[34] US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, Interim: Kuwait Oil Fire Health Risk Assessment. No. 39-26-1192-91, June 1991, p. ES-3.
[35] Institute of Medicine, Health Consequences of Service During the Gulf War: Recommendations for Research and Information Systems, National Academy Press, 1996, p. 46.
[36] US Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter," Vol 3, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, April 1996, p. 13-65.
[37] Bar-Ziv, J. and G.M. Goldberg, "Simple Siliceous Pneumoconiosis in Negev Bedouins," Archive of Environmental Health, 1974, vol. 29, p. 124.
[38] Vallyathan, V., X. Shi, N.S. Dalal, W. Irr, and V. Castranova, "Generation of Free Radicals from Freshly Fractured Silica Dust," American Review of Respiratory Disease, 1988; vol. 138, p. 1213.
[39] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 19.
[40] Fraser, R.G., J.A.P. Pare, P.D. Pare, R.S. Fraser, G.P. Genereux, Diagnosis of Diseases of the Chest (3rd Ed.), Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Co., 1990 (p. 2282-2307).
[41] Landrigan, P.J., "Silicosis," in Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 1987, vol. 2, p. 319.
[42] "Silicosis and Operational Exposures to Dust and Sand," Navy Bureau of Medicine, 1990, http://www.gulflink.health.mil/declassdocs/bumed/19961211/120396_sep96_decls12_0002.html.
[43] Korenyi-Both, A.L., A.C. Molnar, and R. Fidelus-Gort, "Al Eskan Disease: Desert Storm Pneumonitis," Military Medicine, Vol. 157, 1992, pg. 452-462.
[44] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 22.
[45] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 23.
[46] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 25.
[47] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 25.
[48] Risk is a relative term that describes the likelihood that an individual or population will develop a short- or long-term health effect from exposure to hazardous or toxic substances.
[49] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p.6.
[50] Klaassen C.D., J Doull, and M.O. Amdur, "Casarett and Doull's Toxicology - The Basic Science of Poisons, Fifth Edition." The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1996, Edition 5; p. 84.
[51] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 6.
[52] US Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine ; Technical Guide (Reference Document) 230B, "Long-term Chemical Exposure Guidelines for Deployed Military Personnel," February 2000.
[53] US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, "Metabolic Cost of Military Physical Tasks in MOPP 0 and MOPP 4," US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, April 1995.
[54] In estimating the inhalation rate, deployed personnel were assumed to spend 6 hours sleeping (at an inhalation rate of 0.4 m3/hr), 4 hours for sedentary activities (at 0.5 m3/hr), 6 hours for light duties (at 1.2 m3/hr), and 8 hours for moderate duties (at 2.2 m3/hr). Therefore: (0.4 m3/hr x 6hrs) + (0.5 m3/hr x 4hrs) + (1.2 m3/hr x 6hrs) + (2.2 m3/hr x 8hrs) = 29.2 m3/24-hour day.
[55] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 7.
[56] A value of 1.76 years was derived to enable comparison between Gulf War personnel exposures and researched occupational levels. The average deployment to the Kuwait Theater of Operation (KTO) was for 153 days. This equates to a 1.76 year occupational equivalent when considering personnel were exposed 24 hrs/day or 168 hrs/wk, e.g., [168 hrs/wk]/[40 hrs/wk] x [153 days]/[365 days/yr] = 1.76 years. This formula assumes occupational exposures are 365 days per year, 52 weeks per year which adds an additional level of conservatism since OSHA considers occupational exposures to be 250 days per year, 46 weeks per year.
[57] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War", May 2000, p. 8, 26, and 27. [These exposures are based on upper confidence 95% level data and a respirable silica content of 6.5%.]
[58] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War", May 2000, p. 8, 26, and 27. [These dosages are based on upper confidence 95% level data and a respirable silica content of 6.5%.]
[59] The estimated doses are conservative in that it was assumed that all of the particulate matter (including silica and soot) collected by the PM10 air samplers was respirable, which may not necessarily be the case. Though the PM10 air samplers do collect respirable matter, they do so with a greater efficiency than an ideal respirable air sampler that mimics the human respiratory tract and also collect non-respirable particles that are small enough to penetrate into the tracheobronchial region yet are too large to enter the pulmonary region (alveolar region where gas exchange occurs).
[60] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 33.
[61] Thomas, R.B., T. Vigerstad, J. Meagher, and C. McMullin, "Particulate Exposure During the Persian Gulf War," May 2000, p. 21.
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